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Alpha-fetoprotein is a glycoprotein present at very low concentrations under normal physiological conditions. AFP’s levels rise in pregnant women, as the liver of the developing fetus produces AFP and it appears in the mother’s blood. Screening during the second trimester of pregnancy is recommended, especially if the mother has a family history of birth defects, is 35 years or older, or has diabetes. Monitoring AFP levels in the mother’s blood can help indicate if there is a development issue with the neural tube that later becomes the brain and spinal cord. AFP is also associated with primary liver, stomach, lung, and other tumors, highlighting its value as a cancer marker.

Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is a glycoprotein hormone produced by granulosa cells of small, growing follicles in the ovary. AMH serum concentrations decline over women’s reproductive lifespan, becoming undetectable approximately 5 years before menopause when the stock of primordial follicles is exhausted. Therefore, AMH has received increasing attention as a marker for ovarian reserves and has been shown to predict a woman’s reproductive potential.

Carcinoembryonic antigen is a small protein or antigen found in tissues of developing fetus, then becomes very low or disappears after birth. The normal range of CEA levels in healthy adults is 0 – 2.5 ng/ml.  CEA levels increase in the blood of some cancer patients as CEA is found on the surface of many types of cancer cells. While CEA doesn’t indicate the type of cancer the patient may have, CEA levels increase in rectal colon cancer patients. After successful resection of the tumor, CEA levels will decrease back to normal. Understanding the CEA blood levels in patients is therefore useful in cancer screening and treatment efficacy.